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Indian Political System

PYQ 17-07-2025

SECTIOIN A

1. Write a detailed essay on the Process of Constitutional Development from Ancient India to the Colonial Period

Ans : The constitutional development in India can be traced from ancient times to the colonial era. In ancient India, society was governed by customs, dharma (duty), and religious texts like the Vedas, Manusmriti, and Arthashastra. These texts provided guidelines for rulers and subjects and were considered the source of law. Kings ruled under the concept of Rajdharma, and decision-making was often guided by assemblies like the Sabha and Samiti.

During the medieval period, the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire introduced administrative systems with some elements of governance but lacked constitutional principles in a modern sense. The ruler's will was supreme.

The major shift came with the British colonial period. The East India Company began to administer territories with the help of charters and acts passed by the British Parliament. Important constitutional developments include:

Regulating Act of 1773: First step in British parliamentary control.
Pitt's India Act, 1784: Increased British government's role.
Charter Acts (1813, 1833, 1853): Progressive centralization and opening up of administration.
Government of India Act, 1858: End of Company rule, direct control by the Crown.
Indian Councils Acts (1861, 1892): Introduced limited Indian participation.
Morley-Minto Reforms (1909): Introduced separate electorates.
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): Diarchy introduced in provinces.
Government of India Act, 1935: Provided federal structure and provincial autonomy, laid the foundation of India’s present Constitution.

This gradual development established the framework for democratic governance in India, culminating in the adoption of the Constitution in 1950.

2. Describe the salient Features of the Indian Constitution

Ans:

Lengthiest Constitution in the world
Drawn from multiple sources (UK, USA, Ireland, etc.)
Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic
Federal system with a strong center
Parliamentary system of government
Fundamental Rights and Duties
Directive Principles of State Policy
Independent Judiciary and Judicial Review
Single Citizenship
Universal Adult Franchise
Emergency provisions
Amendment procedures (flexible and rigid)
Special provisions for Scheduled Castes, Tribes, and minorities

3. What are the key Features of Federal Structure in the Indian governance system? Explain with a critical assessment of Centre-state relation.

Ans : Key Features:

Division of powers into three lists: Union, State, and Concurrent.
Written Constitution ensuring clear distribution.
Supremacy of the Constitution.
Independent Judiciary to resolve disputes.
Bicameral Legislature at the center.

Centre-State Relations – Critical Assessment:

The central government holds more power, especially in emergencies.
States depend on the Centre for financial resources.
Governor is appointed by the Centre and can act in its interest.
Article 356 (President's Rule) has been misused in the past.
However, cooperative federalism is being promoted in recent years through institutions like NITI Aayog.

India’s federalism is often called "quasi-federal", as it combines features of both federal and unitary systems.

4. Describe the Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties given in the Constitution and clearly explain the difference between the two.

Fundamental Rights:
These are enshrined in Part III of the Constitution and are essential for the overall development of individuals. They ensure civil liberties so that individuals can live in dignity and freedom. The six fundamental rights are:

Right to Equality (Articles 14–18) – Equal treatment under the law.
Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22) – Freedom of speech, expression, movement, etc.
Right against Exploitation (Articles 23–24) – Prohibits human trafficking and child labor.
Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28) – Freedom to practice, profess, and propagate religion.
Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30) – Protects rights of minorities to conserve culture.
Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32) – Right to approach the Supreme Court in case of violation of rights.

Fundamental Duties:
These are found in Article 51A (Part IV-A), added by the 42nd Amendment (1976). These are moral obligations of citizens to help promote patriotism and uphold the unity of India. There are 11 Fundamental Duties, such as:

Respecting the Constitution, national flag, and anthem.
Protecting sovereignty and integrity of India.
Promoting harmony and spirit of common brotherhood.
Protecting environment and public property.

Difference:

Rights are enforceable in court, duties are not.
Rights are individual-centric, duties are society-centric.
Rights are guaranteed, duties are expected.
Duties aim to promote discipline and responsibility, rights ensure freedom and justice.

Conclusion:
While Fundamental Rights empower citizens and protect individual freedoms, Fundamental Duties serve as reminders of moral and civic responsibilities. Together, they create a balanced and responsible democratic society.

5. What is the need for local self-governance? Discuss with reference to the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments.

Need for Local Self-Governance:

Brings governance closer to the people.
Increases participation in democratic processes.
Ensures efficient delivery of basic services.
Empowers marginalized groups (like women and SC/STs).
Encourages accountability and transparency at the grassroots level.

73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992):

Gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions.
Introduced a three-tier structure: Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, and Zila Parishad.
Provided for election every 5 years, reservation for SC/ST and women, and creation of State Finance Commission.
Added Eleventh Schedule (29 subjects) for Panchayat jurisdiction.

74th Constitutional Amendment (1992):

Empowered Urban Local Bodies like Municipal Corporations, Municipalities, and Nagar Panchayats.
Provided constitutional status and structure for urban governance.
Introduced Twelfth Schedule (18 functions) such as urban planning, waste management, etc.
Mandated regular elections, reservations, and State Finance Commissions for urban areas.

Conclusion:
Local self-governance is essential for inclusive, participatory, and efficient administration. The 73rd and 74th Amendments have strengthened grassroots democracy and brought governance closer to the people in both rural and urban areas.

Section B

1. What was the contribution of the Government of India Act, 1935 in constitutional development?

Established federal structure with division of powers between Centre and Provinces.
Introduced provincial autonomy: Ministers were made responsible to provincial legislatures.
Created an All-India Federation, although it was never implemented.
Provided for bicameral legislature at the Centre.
Introduced diarchy at the Centre (executive powers divided between Governor-General and ministers).
Introduced direct elections for the first time.
Set up the Federal Court of India.
Basis for many provisions in the present Constitution like federalism, public service commissions, emergency provisions, etc.

Conclusion:
The 1935 Act laid the foundational framework for democratic governance in India and significantly influenced the structure and content of the Indian Constitution adopted in 1950.

2. Describe the Indian and foreign sources of the Indian Constitution.

Indian Sources:

Government of India Acts (1858, 1909, 1919, 1935) – Federal structure, administrative division, emergency provisions.
Constitutional debates of the Constituent Assembly.
British Parliament’s charters – Evolution of legislative powers in India.

Foreign Sources:

UK Constitution – Parliamentary system, Rule of Law, legislative procedures.
USA Constitution – Fundamental Rights, Judicial Review, independence of judiciary.
Ireland – Directive Principles of State Policy.
Australia – Concurrent list, freedom of trade and commerce.
Canada – Strong center, residuary powers with the Union.
Soviet Union (former) – Fundamental Duties.
Germany (Weimar Constitution) – Emergency provisions.
France – Republic and the concept of liberty, equality, fraternity.

Conclusion:
The Indian Constitution is a blend of indigenous experience and foreign inspirations, combining the best practices from around the world to suit India’s unique social, political, and historical context.

3. Write an essay on the amendments adopted in the Preamble by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act.

The 42nd Amendment Act (1976), during the Emergency period, made significant changes to the Preamble.
It added three new words:
- Socialist – Economic equality and social justice.
- Secular – Equal respect and protection for all religions.
- Integrity – National unity and territorial integrity.
These changes reflected the values of the time and the intention to emphasize social justice and unity.

Conclusion:
The 42nd Amendment gave a clearer ideological direction to the Constitution, reinforcing its commitment to equality, religious neutrality, and national unity. These values are now deeply rooted in India’s constitutional identity.

4. Shed light on the legislative, administrative, and financial relations between the Centre and the States.

Legislative Relations:

Divided under Seventh Schedule into Union List (Centre), State List (States), and Concurrent List (both).
Centre can make laws on State subjects under special circumstances (Article 249, 250).
In case of conflict in Concurrent List, Union law prevails.

Administrative Relations:

Articles 256–263 deal with administrative relations.
States must comply with Union laws and directions.
Centre can send officers or issue instructions in certain matters.
Inter-State Council can be set up for coordination.

Financial Relations:

Centre collects most revenue (income tax, GST, excise).
States depend on Finance Commission for their share.
Grants-in-aid and centrally sponsored schemes help in financial distribution.
State taxation powers are limited.

Conclusion:
Though powers are divided, the Constitution gives the Centre a stronger role. However, mechanisms like the Finance Commission and Inter-State Council aim to maintain cooperative federalism.

5. Evaluate the purpose and relevance of the Directive Principles of State Policy.

Purpose:

Found in Part IV (Articles 36–51) of the Constitution.
Aimed at establishing social and economic democracy.
Non-justiciable but fundamental in governance.

Key Objectives:

Ensure welfare state.
Provide adequate means of livelihood.
Reduce inequality in wealth and status.
Promote education, health, and equal pay.
Protect environment and heritage.

Relevance:

Influence government policies and legislation.
Many laws (e.g., MGNREGA, RTE) are inspired by DPSPs.
Acts as a moral compass for state actions.

Conclusion:
DPSPs represent the vision of a just and equitable society. Though non-enforceable in courts, they are crucial in guiding state policy toward inclusive development and social justice.

6. What are the various powers, and functions of the Prime Minister and the President? How do they differ from each other?

President:

Constitutional Head of State.
Appoints PM, judges, governors, etc.
Summons and dissolves Parliament.
Commander-in-Chief of Armed Forces.
Can declare Emergency.
Acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers.

Prime Minister:

Real executive authority.
Head of the Council of Ministers.
Advises President on appointments and decisions.
Leader of the Lok Sabha.
Coordinates functions of different ministries.
Represents the country in international affairs.

Differences:

President is nominal head, PM is real head.
President acts on advice, PM gives advice.
President symbolizes the state, PM runs the government.

Conclusion:
The President is the ceremonial head, while the Prime Minister holds real power in governance. Their roles are distinct yet interdependent in India's parliamentary system.

7. "There is often a clash between the Governor and the Chief Minister" – why is this said? Explain.

Governor is appointed by the Centre, but the Chief Minister is elected by the State legislature.
Conflicts arise when the Governor:
- Does not invite the majority party to form the government.
- Delays assent to bills passed by the legislature.
- Acts against the advice of the Council of Ministers.
Allegations of the Governor acting as a "political agent" of the Centre.

Examples:
Several states have seen disputes, especially when different parties are in power at the Centre and State.

Conclusion:
Clashes occur due to differing political interests and ambiguous constitutional provisions. A neutral and non-partisan Governor is essential for smooth Centre-State relations.

8. Discuss the composition and powers of the Indian Parliament.

Composition:

Lok Sabha (Lower House) – 545 members, directly elected.
Rajya Sabha (Upper House) – 245 members, elected by state legislatures and nominated by the President.
President is also part of Parliament.

Powers:

Legislative Powers – Make laws on Union and Concurrent Lists.
Financial Powers – Lok Sabha controls money bills.
Executive Control – Can question, censure, or remove the Council of Ministers.
Amending Powers – Can amend the Constitution.
Judicial Powers – Can impeach President, remove judges.

Conclusion:
The Indian Parliament is the supreme legislative body and represents the voice of the people. It plays a vital role in law-making, budget control, and ensuring accountability of the executive.

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